History Of Japan
The history of Japan has been modeled in large part by its isolation as a nation-island and by its proximity to the colossal Asian continent (and in particular by its neighbors, Korea and China). In the opening times it has been permeable to the diverse ideas and cultures that have reached its shores; in the ones of cerrazón, he has dedicated himself to incubate his particular way of doing things. Like most stories, Japan's is full of conflicts, growth and rivers of blood.
Old Japan
First settlers
The first indications of human life in Japan date back 30,000 years, but it is possible that it was inhabited much earlier. Until the end of the last glaciation, some 15,000 years ago, several land “bridges” linked Japan with the mainland (Siberia in the north, Korea in the west and perhaps the current Taiwan in the south), so the territory It was accessible.
The first recognizable culture to emerge was the Neolithic jōmon, in 13,000 B.C. Historians called them that way because of the ceramics with marks they created, printing twisted ropes on handmade vessels. They had a semi-nomadic life in settlements along coastal areas, especially in northeastern Japan.
Sometime between 800 and 300 BC, a new culture began to take shape: the yayoi (also owes its name to its characteristic pottery, created on a lathe). There is much debate about the origin of this change in the creation of ceramics; on whether it was introduced by settlers from China or Korea (or both). The first known Yayoi settlements were discovered in northern Kyushu, near the Korean peninsula, and cultural change spread from there.
The Yayoi introduced wet cultivation techniques for rice; something that meant a great change; not only because it required more stable settlements, but also because the practice of intensive farming was better suited to the lowlands, which favored population growth in fertile basins. They also introduced iron and bronze. Towards the s. A.D.C., the yayoi had extended to the center of Honshū; the north was still considered jōmon territory until s. VIII (Hokkaidō and Okinawa did not exist then).
First settlers
The first indications of human life in Japan date back 30,000 years, but it is possible that it was inhabited much earlier. Until the end of the last glaciation, some 15,000 years ago, several land “bridges” linked Japan with the mainland (Siberia in the north, Korea in the west and perhaps the current Taiwan in the south), so the territory It was accessible.
The first recognizable culture to emerge was the Neolithic jōmon, in 13,000 B.C. Historians called them that way because of the ceramics with marks they created, printing twisted ropes on handmade vessels. They had a semi-nomadic life in settlements along coastal areas, especially in northeastern Japan.
Sometime between 800 and 300 BC, a new culture began to take shape: the yayoi (also owes its name to its characteristic pottery, created on a lathe). There is much debate about the origin of this change in the creation of ceramics; on whether it was introduced by settlers from China or Korea (or both). The first known Yayoi settlements were discovered in northern Kyushu, near the Korean peninsula, and cultural change spread from there.
The Yayoi introduced wet cultivation techniques for rice; something that meant a great change; not only because it required more stable settlements, but also because the practice of intensive farming was better suited to the lowlands, which favored population growth in fertile basins. They also introduced iron and bronze. Towards the s. A.D.C., the yayoi had extended to the center of Honshū; the north was still considered jōmon territory until s. VIII (Hokkaidō and Okinawa did not exist then).
The era of the courtiers
Creation of the capital
Before the year 694, the Yamato court was in the habit of moving and building a new palace each time a new emperor or empress was elected (30 or 40, depending on the story). Empress Jito was the first who ordered the construction of a more permanent capital, based on the Chinese model of an orderly network. It only lasted 16 years, but the idea was set, and in 710 a new capital was established in Nara (Heijō-kyō).
At that time, Buddhism thrived; as evidence, the construction of the Tōdai-ji temple (745) stands out, which is still standing and houses a huge bronze Buddha. It is the largest wooden building in the world (and one of the oldest). The Kofun had gone out of style in the capital (although they were still erected in the suburbs) and the tombs were decorated with Buddhist motifs.
Creation of the capital
Before the year 694, the Yamato court was in the habit of moving and building a new palace each time a new emperor or empress was elected (30 or 40, depending on the story). Empress Jito was the first who ordered the construction of a more permanent capital, based on the Chinese model of an orderly network. It only lasted 16 years, but the idea was set, and in 710 a new capital was established in Nara (Heijō-kyō).
At that time, Buddhism thrived; as evidence, the construction of the Tōdai-ji temple (745) stands out, which is still standing and houses a huge bronze Buddha. It is the largest wooden building in the world (and one of the oldest). The Kofun had gone out of style in the capital (although they were still erected in the suburbs) and the tombs were decorated with Buddhist motifs.
Emperor Kammu [781-806] decided to relocate
the capital in 784, perhaps as a result of a succession of disasters
after the transfer to Nara, including a smallpox epidemic that killed
almost a third of the population between 735 and 737. In 794, the
capital moved to neighboring Kyoto (Heian-kyō), which exercised as such
for more than 1000 years (although it was not always the true center of
power). 
The rise of the Yamato clan
Agricultural settlements delimited territories and borders. According to Chinese sources, towards the end of the s. III A.D. There were more than 100 kingdoms in Japan, and some of them were ruled by a queen named Himiko. The exact place of his kingdom is unclear; Some historians claim that he was in the northwest of Kyushu, but a considerable majority points to the Nara region. Its territory was known as Yamatai (possibly the name "Yamato" comes from there). The Chinese called this nascent state Wa, and considered Himiko as their sovereign, who, through tribute, recognized his loyalty to the emperor of China.
At the same time there was a practice whereby tribal leaders were buried in burial mounds (kofun), whose shape and size were related to their status, which proves the existence of an increasingly hierarchical society and the rise of a culture based on the material (after his death, in 248, Himiko was buried in a huge grave, along with 100 slaves slaughtered). This development resulted in the beginning of what historians call the Kofun period, or Yamato, during which administrative and military power began to merge around the Yamato clan, in the Kansai basin.
Under the reign of Empress Suiko (592-628), and her powerful regent prince Shōtoku (573-620), administrative reforms inspired by the Chinese Tang dynasty and aimed at consolidating power through taxes, the regulated distribution of the territory and official ranks.
Prince Shōtoku had an instrumental role in the early spread of Buddhism (which arrived in Japan through Korean influence), founding several temples in the Kansai area.
Agricultural settlements delimited territories and borders. According to Chinese sources, towards the end of the s. III A.D. There were more than 100 kingdoms in Japan, and some of them were ruled by a queen named Himiko. The exact place of his kingdom is unclear; Some historians claim that he was in the northwest of Kyushu, but a considerable majority points to the Nara region. Its territory was known as Yamatai (possibly the name "Yamato" comes from there). The Chinese called this nascent state Wa, and considered Himiko as their sovereign, who, through tribute, recognized his loyalty to the emperor of China.
At the same time there was a practice whereby tribal leaders were buried in burial mounds (kofun), whose shape and size were related to their status, which proves the existence of an increasingly hierarchical society and the rise of a culture based on the material (after his death, in 248, Himiko was buried in a huge grave, along with 100 slaves slaughtered). This development resulted in the beginning of what historians call the Kofun period, or Yamato, during which administrative and military power began to merge around the Yamato clan, in the Kansai basin.
Under the reign of Empress Suiko (592-628), and her powerful regent prince Shōtoku (573-620), administrative reforms inspired by the Chinese Tang dynasty and aimed at consolidating power through taxes, the regulated distribution of the territory and official ranks.
Prince Shōtoku had an instrumental role in the early spread of Buddhism (which arrived in Japan through Korean influence), founding several temples in the Kansai area.
Heian Court Rise and Fall
In the following centuries, the courtly life in Kyoto reached the peak of its refinement and protocol, as reflected in the famous novel History of Genji, written by the courtesan Murasaki Shikibu towards 1004, where the courtiers given to amusements are shown how to guess the Flowers for their aroma, build architectural extravagances and spare no expense in the ultimate in luxury. That was a world that stimulated aesthetics with concepts such as the monkey not aware (the bittersweet of things) and the okashisa (incongruity that surprises and pleases), which have survived until today, but it was also a world increasingly distant from the reality. Manipulated for centuries by the Fujiwara family, politically very powerful, the imperial throne lost authority.
While the nobles were engulfed in courtly pleasures and intrigues, powerful military forces arose in the provinces almost always by nobles of minor ranks, often sent in the name of the high nobility to perform ‘tedious’ tasks. Some of them were distant relatives of the imperial family, separated from the line of succession - they were given new names and banished to provincial clans - and hostile to the court. Among his servants were skilled warriors known as samurai (literally, "servants").
The two main clans of the low discarded nobility, the Minamoto (or Genji) and the Taira (Heike), were enemies. In 1156 they were commissioned to support rival factions that aspired to rule in the Fujiwara family, but this soon passed to the background when a contest was initiated between the Minamoto and the Taira.
The Taira were imposed, under the command of Kiyomori (1118-1181), which was established in the capital and, in the following 20 years, surrendered to its many vices. In 1180 he enthroned his 2-year-old grandson Antoku. When a rival suitor sought the help of the Minamoto family, who had regrouped, their leader, Yoritomo (1147-1199), did not hesitate. Kiyomori and the suitor died shortly after, but Yoritomo and his step-brother Yoshitsune (1159-1189) continued the war against the Taira. In 1185 Kyoto had fallen and the Taira were persecuted to the western end of Honshū. After a naval battle in which the Minamoto defeated, Kiyomori's widow threw herself into the sea with her grandson Antoku (who was already 7 years old). With Minamoto Yoritomo as Japan's most powerful man, a period of military dominance began.
In the following centuries, the courtly life in Kyoto reached the peak of its refinement and protocol, as reflected in the famous novel History of Genji, written by the courtesan Murasaki Shikibu towards 1004, where the courtiers given to amusements are shown how to guess the Flowers for their aroma, build architectural extravagances and spare no expense in the ultimate in luxury. That was a world that stimulated aesthetics with concepts such as the monkey not aware (the bittersweet of things) and the okashisa (incongruity that surprises and pleases), which have survived until today, but it was also a world increasingly distant from the reality. Manipulated for centuries by the Fujiwara family, politically very powerful, the imperial throne lost authority.
While the nobles were engulfed in courtly pleasures and intrigues, powerful military forces arose in the provinces almost always by nobles of minor ranks, often sent in the name of the high nobility to perform ‘tedious’ tasks. Some of them were distant relatives of the imperial family, separated from the line of succession - they were given new names and banished to provincial clans - and hostile to the court. Among his servants were skilled warriors known as samurai (literally, "servants").
The two main clans of the low discarded nobility, the Minamoto (or Genji) and the Taira (Heike), were enemies. In 1156 they were commissioned to support rival factions that aspired to rule in the Fujiwara family, but this soon passed to the background when a contest was initiated between the Minamoto and the Taira.
The Taira were imposed, under the command of Kiyomori (1118-1181), which was established in the capital and, in the following 20 years, surrendered to its many vices. In 1180 he enthroned his 2-year-old grandson Antoku. When a rival suitor sought the help of the Minamoto family, who had regrouped, their leader, Yoritomo (1147-1199), did not hesitate. Kiyomori and the suitor died shortly after, but Yoritomo and his step-brother Yoshitsune (1159-1189) continued the war against the Taira. In 1185 Kyoto had fallen and the Taira were persecuted to the western end of Honshū. After a naval battle in which the Minamoto defeated, Kiyomori's widow threw herself into the sea with her grandson Antoku (who was already 7 years old). With Minamoto Yoritomo as Japan's most powerful man, a period of military dominance began.
The era of warriors
The first sogún
Yoritomo did not aspire to become emperor, but he wanted the new emperor to grant him the title of sogún (generalissimo), which happened in 1192. He kept several offices and institutions, and created his headquarters in his homeland, Kamakura (near the current Tokyo), instead of in Kyoto. His sogunato was known in Japanese as bakufu, which refers to the field headquarters of a field general. Although, in theory, Yoritomo represented the military arm of the emperor's government, in practice he was in charge of the government. Kamakura baufuku established a feudal system - which would last almost 700 years as an institution - based on loyalty between lords and vassals.
When Yoritomo died in 1199 (after falling from his horse in suspicious circumstances), his son succeeded him in the title of sogún. However, his widow, Masako (1157-1225), was a member of the Hōjō clan and a formidable figure, and accumulated a very significant power for the rest of his life (despite shaving his head and taking religious vows after the death of his husband). His father served as regent, a title that the Hōjō would retain until intrigues and internal disputes ended the life of the last Minamoto heir, a moment that the Hōjō took advantage of to openly claim the sogunato.
The first sogún
Yoritomo did not aspire to become emperor, but he wanted the new emperor to grant him the title of sogún (generalissimo), which happened in 1192. He kept several offices and institutions, and created his headquarters in his homeland, Kamakura (near the current Tokyo), instead of in Kyoto. His sogunato was known in Japanese as bakufu, which refers to the field headquarters of a field general. Although, in theory, Yoritomo represented the military arm of the emperor's government, in practice he was in charge of the government. Kamakura baufuku established a feudal system - which would last almost 700 years as an institution - based on loyalty between lords and vassals.
When Yoritomo died in 1199 (after falling from his horse in suspicious circumstances), his son succeeded him in the title of sogún. However, his widow, Masako (1157-1225), was a member of the Hōjō clan and a formidable figure, and accumulated a very significant power for the rest of his life (despite shaving his head and taking religious vows after the death of his husband). His father served as regent, a title that the Hōjō would retain until intrigues and internal disputes ended the life of the last Minamoto heir, a moment that the Hōjō took advantage of to openly claim the sogunato.
Mongol invasions
During the Hōjō sogunato the Mongols tried to invade Japan twice: in 1274 and 1281. With Kublái Kan [1260-1294], the Mongol Empire was almost at the apex of its power and, after conquering Korea in 1259, the Kan demanded Japan that he submit to his sovereignty, but without result.
During the Hōjō sogunato the Mongols tried to invade Japan twice: in 1274 and 1281. With Kublái Kan [1260-1294], the Mongol Empire was almost at the apex of its power and, after conquering Korea in 1259, the Kan demanded Japan that he submit to his sovereignty, but without result.
The first attack of Kublái Kan occurred in November 1274, supposedly with about 900 ships carrying 40,000 soldiers, although this may be exaggerated. The Mongols landed near Hakata in the northwest of Kyushu and, despite the vigorous resistance, advanced inland; however, for unclear reasons they retired to their ships and then a storm ensued that caused damage to a third of them. The rest returned to Korea.
Seven years later a more determined attempt was made from China. Kublái Kan ordered the construction of a fleet of 4400 ships to transport 140,000 men, again doubtful figures. In August 1281 the Mongols disembarked again in the northwest of Kyūshū and, once again, met with stubborn resistance and had to withdraw. The elements intervened again (this time a typhoon). The survivors returned to China and the Mongols resigned to invade Japan.
The typhoon of 1281 gave rise to the idea of a divine intervention to save Japan, and coined the term kamikaze (literally, “divine wind”), which would later be applied to the suicide pilots of the Pacific war who, supposedly imbued by the divine spirit, they gave their lives to protect their country.
Seven years later a more determined attempt was made from China. Kublái Kan ordered the construction of a fleet of 4400 ships to transport 140,000 men, again doubtful figures. In August 1281 the Mongols disembarked again in the northwest of Kyūshū and, once again, met with stubborn resistance and had to withdraw. The elements intervened again (this time a typhoon). The survivors returned to China and the Mongols resigned to invade Japan.
The typhoon of 1281 gave rise to the idea of a divine intervention to save Japan, and coined the term kamikaze (literally, “divine wind”), which would later be applied to the suicide pilots of the Pacific war who, supposedly imbued by the divine spirit, they gave their lives to protect their country.
The fall of Kamakura
Despite his successful defense of Japan, the Hōjō sogunato suffered. His inability to meet the promised payments to those who had repelled the Mongols caused great dissatisfaction, while he spent it significantly reduced his finances.
Disappointment to the sogunato culminated in the time of the authoritarian Emperor Go-Daigo (1288-1339). After escaping the banishment imposed on him by the Hōjō, he began to seek support against the sogunato in western Honshū. In 1333, and to stop this threat, the sogunato sent troops under the command of one of his most promising generals, the young Ashikaga Takauji (1305-1358); however, upon realizing the disaffection of the Hōjō and that if he joined Go-Daigo between the two they would have considerable military power, Takauji allied himself with the emperor and attacked the dependencies of the sogunato in Kyoto. Others soon rebelled against the sogunato himself in Kamakura.
That marked the end of the Hōjō sogunato, but not of the institution. Takauji aspired to the title of sogún, but his ally Go-Daigo feared that this would weaken his power as emperor. The alliance was broken and Go-Daigo sent troops against Takauji, but he defeated and attacked Kyoto, which forced Go-Daigo to take refuge in the mountains of Yoshino, about 100 km south of the city, where he established his court. Takauji, meanwhile, installed in Kyoto a puppet emperor of a rival lineage, which proclaimed him sogún in 1338. The two courts coexisted until 1392, when the "court of the south" (in Yoshino) was betrayed by Ashikaga Yoshimitsu ( 1358-1408), grandson of Takauji and third sogún Ashikaga.
Despite his successful defense of Japan, the Hōjō sogunato suffered. His inability to meet the promised payments to those who had repelled the Mongols caused great dissatisfaction, while he spent it significantly reduced his finances.
Disappointment to the sogunato culminated in the time of the authoritarian Emperor Go-Daigo (1288-1339). After escaping the banishment imposed on him by the Hōjō, he began to seek support against the sogunato in western Honshū. In 1333, and to stop this threat, the sogunato sent troops under the command of one of his most promising generals, the young Ashikaga Takauji (1305-1358); however, upon realizing the disaffection of the Hōjō and that if he joined Go-Daigo between the two they would have considerable military power, Takauji allied himself with the emperor and attacked the dependencies of the sogunato in Kyoto. Others soon rebelled against the sogunato himself in Kamakura.
That marked the end of the Hōjō sogunato, but not of the institution. Takauji aspired to the title of sogún, but his ally Go-Daigo feared that this would weaken his power as emperor. The alliance was broken and Go-Daigo sent troops against Takauji, but he defeated and attacked Kyoto, which forced Go-Daigo to take refuge in the mountains of Yoshino, about 100 km south of the city, where he established his court. Takauji, meanwhile, installed in Kyoto a puppet emperor of a rival lineage, which proclaimed him sogún in 1338. The two courts coexisted until 1392, when the "court of the south" (in Yoshino) was betrayed by Ashikaga Yoshimitsu ( 1358-1408), grandson of Takauji and third sogún Ashikaga.
States at war
Takauji established his sogunato in Kyoto, in Muromachi. With few exceptions such as Takauji and his grandson Yoshimitsu (who ordered the construction of the famous Kinkaku-ji and once declared himself "king of Japan"), the Ashikaga sogunes were relatively ineffective. Without a strong and centralized power, the country was immersed in a civil conflict when the warlords (the daimians) engaged in endless struggles for power. It began with the Ōnin war of 1467-1477 and for 100 years the country lived in an almost constant civil strife; This period is known as Sengoku (States at War).
During that time, the warrior class took over the lands and cultural hobbies of the landowner nobility, and their tastes marked the fashion of the time. The austerity and self-discipline of Zen Buddhism, which had penetrated Japan from China in the s. XIII, attracted the warrior class and also influenced its aesthetic values, such as sabi (elegant simplicity), yūgen (elegant and calm introspection, as in the nō), wabi (rustic) and kare (dour and austere). And so it happened that, during that time of almost constant wars and instability, the arts such as the refined nō (minimalist theater-dance), the ikebana (floral compositions) or the chanoyu (tea ceremony), lived a flourishing moment.
Takauji established his sogunato in Kyoto, in Muromachi. With few exceptions such as Takauji and his grandson Yoshimitsu (who ordered the construction of the famous Kinkaku-ji and once declared himself "king of Japan"), the Ashikaga sogunes were relatively ineffective. Without a strong and centralized power, the country was immersed in a civil conflict when the warlords (the daimians) engaged in endless struggles for power. It began with the Ōnin war of 1467-1477 and for 100 years the country lived in an almost constant civil strife; This period is known as Sengoku (States at War).
During that time, the warrior class took over the lands and cultural hobbies of the landowner nobility, and their tastes marked the fashion of the time. The austerity and self-discipline of Zen Buddhism, which had penetrated Japan from China in the s. XIII, attracted the warrior class and also influenced its aesthetic values, such as sabi (elegant simplicity), yūgen (elegant and calm introspection, as in the nō), wabi (rustic) and kare (dour and austere). And so it happened that, during that time of almost constant wars and instability, the arts such as the refined nō (minimalist theater-dance), the ikebana (floral compositions) or the chanoyu (tea ceremony), lived a flourishing moment.
Reunification
Nobunaga comes to power
The first Europeans arrived in 1543; the winds took three Portuguese merchants to the island of Tanegashima, south of Kyushu. Soon more Europeans appeared, along with Christianity and firearms, who found a land divided by war and ready for conversion, at least in the eyes of missionaries like Francisco Javier, who arrived in 1549. However, the Daimios were more interested in more prosaic subjects, such as firearms. One of the daimios that took more advantage of them was Oda Nobunaga (1534-1582). Starting from a headquarters of relatively minor power (in the current prefecture of Aichi), his skillful and ruthless generalate earned him a series of triumphs over his rivals. In 1568 he took Kyoto and placed as a member a member of the Ahikaga clan (Yoshiaki); in 1573 he expelled him and settled in Azuchi. Although he did not assume the title of sogún, Nobunaga possessed de facto power.
Noted for his brutality, Nobunaga was not a man to take the opposite; He hated Buddhist priests and tolerated Christianity as a counterpower to them. Its objective was the "Tenka Fubu" (A Unified Kingdom under a Military Government) and to some extent it was achieved by redistributing territories among the daimians, performing cadastres and normalizing weights and measures. But we will never know what kind of ruler he would have been: before he could reach his goal, he was betrayed by one of his generals and killed in 1582.
Nobunaga comes to power
The first Europeans arrived in 1543; the winds took three Portuguese merchants to the island of Tanegashima, south of Kyushu. Soon more Europeans appeared, along with Christianity and firearms, who found a land divided by war and ready for conversion, at least in the eyes of missionaries like Francisco Javier, who arrived in 1549. However, the Daimios were more interested in more prosaic subjects, such as firearms. One of the daimios that took more advantage of them was Oda Nobunaga (1534-1582). Starting from a headquarters of relatively minor power (in the current prefecture of Aichi), his skillful and ruthless generalate earned him a series of triumphs over his rivals. In 1568 he took Kyoto and placed as a member a member of the Ahikaga clan (Yoshiaki); in 1573 he expelled him and settled in Azuchi. Although he did not assume the title of sogún, Nobunaga possessed de facto power.
Noted for his brutality, Nobunaga was not a man to take the opposite; He hated Buddhist priests and tolerated Christianity as a counterpower to them. Its objective was the "Tenka Fubu" (A Unified Kingdom under a Military Government) and to some extent it was achieved by redistributing territories among the daimians, performing cadastres and normalizing weights and measures. But we will never know what kind of ruler he would have been: before he could reach his goal, he was betrayed by one of his generals and killed in 1582.
Hideyoshi's ambitions
Another of Nobunaga's generals, Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536-1598), resumed the torch of unification. He was also an extraordinary character, a private soldier who had been ascending rank to rank until becoming Nobunaga's favorite. Often and with similar features, Nobunaga nicknamed him "Saru-chan" ("little monkey"), although his thirst for power contradicted his stature. He got rid of his possible rivals among the children of Nobunaga, assumed the title of regent, continued with Nobunaga's policy of territorial redistribution and insisted that the daimians should hand over their families as hostages in Kyoto. He also banned weapons to all castes except the samurai.
In his last years, Hideyoshi became increasingly paranoid: he cut the bearers of bad news in half with a saw and sent young people from his family to be alleged conspirators; He also decreed the first expulsion of the Christians (1587) because he suspected they were the advance of an invasion. His ambition contemplated the conquest of all Asia, and as a first step he attempted the invasion of Korea in 1592, which failed; He repeated the attempt in 1597, but the campaign was abandoned when Hideyoshi died of illness in 1598.
Another of Nobunaga's generals, Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536-1598), resumed the torch of unification. He was also an extraordinary character, a private soldier who had been ascending rank to rank until becoming Nobunaga's favorite. Often and with similar features, Nobunaga nicknamed him "Saru-chan" ("little monkey"), although his thirst for power contradicted his stature. He got rid of his possible rivals among the children of Nobunaga, assumed the title of regent, continued with Nobunaga's policy of territorial redistribution and insisted that the daimians should hand over their families as hostages in Kyoto. He also banned weapons to all castes except the samurai.
In his last years, Hideyoshi became increasingly paranoid: he cut the bearers of bad news in half with a saw and sent young people from his family to be alleged conspirators; He also decreed the first expulsion of the Christians (1587) because he suspected they were the advance of an invasion. His ambition contemplated the conquest of all Asia, and as a first step he attempted the invasion of Korea in 1592, which failed; He repeated the attempt in 1597, but the campaign was abandoned when Hideyoshi died of illness in 1598.
Hideyoshi's power had been briefly countered by Ieyasu Tokugawa (1542-1616), son of a minor feudal lord allied with Nobunaga. After a brief struggle for power, Ieyasu agreed to a truce with Hideyoshi, and this, in return, gave him eight provinces in eastern Japan. Hideyoshi's intention was to weaken Ieyasu by separating him from his ancestral land, Chūbu (the current prefecture of Aichi), but the upstart saw that gesture as an opportunity to strengthen his power, and created his headquarters in a small town with a castle called Edo ( the future Tokyo).
On his deathbed, Hideyoshi entrusted Ieyasu, who had become one of his best generals, the protection of the country and the succession of his young son Hideyori (1593-1615). But Ieyasu had higher ambitions, and immediately declared war on Hideyori's supporters. The men of Ieyasu finally defeated the Hideyori in the legendary battle of Sekigahara in 1600, which earned Ieyasu the supreme power. He chose Edo as his permanent headquarters and marked the beginning of two and a half centuries of Tokugawa domain.
Thanks to these three men, Nobunaga, Hideyoshi, Ieyasu, by clean means or, above all, artisans, the country reunited in three decades.
The era of stability
Tokugawa mastery
Having secured the power of the Tokugawa, Ieyasu and his successors were determined to keep it. Its basic strategy was extreme micro-organization. They exercised a tight grip on the provincial daimians, who ruled as vassals of the Tokugawa regime, requiring authorization to build castles or marry. They continued to distribute (or confiscate) territory and, most importantly, demanded that the Daimians and their servants spend one every two years in Edo, where their families remained held as permanent hostages according to the Sankin Kōtai edict. This relocation policy made it difficult for the most ambitious daimians to plan to overthrow the Tokugawa.
The sogunato also directly controlled ports, mines, major cities and other strategic areas. The displacements were restricted by means of severe control points, a written permission was necessary to travel and the transport on wheels was prohibited. A very hierarchical society was imposed, composed of (in descending order of importance) the shi (samurai), the nō (farmers), the kō (artisans) and the shō (merchants). The attire, the houses and even the way of speaking of each class were governed by a very strict code, and the interrelation between classes was strictly prohibited. The village and neighborhood chiefs were responsible for imposing the regulations at the local level, creating an environment of constant vigilance. The punishment for the slightest lack could be very hard, cruel and even lead to death.
Tokugawa mastery
Having secured the power of the Tokugawa, Ieyasu and his successors were determined to keep it. Its basic strategy was extreme micro-organization. They exercised a tight grip on the provincial daimians, who ruled as vassals of the Tokugawa regime, requiring authorization to build castles or marry. They continued to distribute (or confiscate) territory and, most importantly, demanded that the Daimians and their servants spend one every two years in Edo, where their families remained held as permanent hostages according to the Sankin Kōtai edict. This relocation policy made it difficult for the most ambitious daimians to plan to overthrow the Tokugawa.
The sogunato also directly controlled ports, mines, major cities and other strategic areas. The displacements were restricted by means of severe control points, a written permission was necessary to travel and the transport on wheels was prohibited. A very hierarchical society was imposed, composed of (in descending order of importance) the shi (samurai), the nō (farmers), the kō (artisans) and the shō (merchants). The attire, the houses and even the way of speaking of each class were governed by a very strict code, and the interrelation between classes was strictly prohibited. The village and neighborhood chiefs were responsible for imposing the regulations at the local level, creating an environment of constant vigilance. The punishment for the slightest lack could be very hard, cruel and even lead to death.
Isolated from the world
At first, the Tokugawa sogunato adopted a policy of sakoku (closure to the outside world), which would last more than two centuries. The regime was suspicious of the potential influence of Catholicism, and expelled missionaries in 1614. After the Shimabara Revolt, led by Christians, Christianity was banned, several hundred thousand Japanese Christians had to hide, and all Westerners, except the Dutch Protestants were expelled in 1638. The sogunato saw Protestantism as a lesser threat than Catholicism (it was known that the Vatican could gather one of the most powerful armies), and would have allowed the British to stay if the Dutch had not convinced that Britain was Catholic. However, the Dutch did not go beyond being a dozen men confined in a small factory on the artificial island of Dejima, near Nagasaki.
The Japanese were forbidden to travel abroad (and those who were abroad were forbidden to return), but, nevertheless, the country was not totally isolated: trade with Asia and the West continued through the Dutch and the Ryūkyū empire (Okinawa today), only under strict control and, together with the exchange of ideas, was channeled exclusively towards the sogunato.
At first, the Tokugawa sogunato adopted a policy of sakoku (closure to the outside world), which would last more than two centuries. The regime was suspicious of the potential influence of Catholicism, and expelled missionaries in 1614. After the Shimabara Revolt, led by Christians, Christianity was banned, several hundred thousand Japanese Christians had to hide, and all Westerners, except the Dutch Protestants were expelled in 1638. The sogunato saw Protestantism as a lesser threat than Catholicism (it was known that the Vatican could gather one of the most powerful armies), and would have allowed the British to stay if the Dutch had not convinced that Britain was Catholic. However, the Dutch did not go beyond being a dozen men confined in a small factory on the artificial island of Dejima, near Nagasaki.
The Japanese were forbidden to travel abroad (and those who were abroad were forbidden to return), but, nevertheless, the country was not totally isolated: trade with Asia and the West continued through the Dutch and the Ryūkyū empire (Okinawa today), only under strict control and, together with the exchange of ideas, was channeled exclusively towards the sogunato.
The rise of the merchant class
Despite all the restrictions, the Tokugawa period experienced considerable dynamism. Japanese cities grew enormously during this period: Edo reached one million inhabitants at the beginning of the s. XVIII, above London and Paris. Kyoto, which has become a center for the production of luxury goods, and Osaka, the center of commerce, touched the figure of 400,000 inhabitants during most of the period.
In spite of the great effort of the rulers to limit the growth of the merchant class, it prospered in a big way thanks to the services and products necessary for the trips of the daimios to and from Edo, so expensive that the daimios had to convert a great part of Your domains in cash. That boosted the general economy.
A new culture emerged that rejected the restrictions and austerity of the sogunato. The increasingly wealthy merchants sponsored the Kabuki theater, sumo tournaments and pleasure neighborhoods; enjoying a joie de vivre that disliked the eager lords of Edo Castle. The pillar of this hedonistic culture was the concept of ukiyo ("floating world"), a term derived from a Buddhist metaphor about the fleeting joys of life. The best examples of that time are found in the ukiyo-e (woodcuts). Meanwhile, the samurai no longer had relevant military commitments, and most of them went on to "fight" in bureaucratic disputes as administrators.
Despite all the restrictions, the Tokugawa period experienced considerable dynamism. Japanese cities grew enormously during this period: Edo reached one million inhabitants at the beginning of the s. XVIII, above London and Paris. Kyoto, which has become a center for the production of luxury goods, and Osaka, the center of commerce, touched the figure of 400,000 inhabitants during most of the period.
In spite of the great effort of the rulers to limit the growth of the merchant class, it prospered in a big way thanks to the services and products necessary for the trips of the daimios to and from Edo, so expensive that the daimios had to convert a great part of Your domains in cash. That boosted the general economy.
A new culture emerged that rejected the restrictions and austerity of the sogunato. The increasingly wealthy merchants sponsored the Kabuki theater, sumo tournaments and pleasure neighborhoods; enjoying a joie de vivre that disliked the eager lords of Edo Castle. The pillar of this hedonistic culture was the concept of ukiyo ("floating world"), a term derived from a Buddhist metaphor about the fleeting joys of life. The best examples of that time are found in the ukiyo-e (woodcuts). Meanwhile, the samurai no longer had relevant military commitments, and most of them went on to "fight" in bureaucratic disputes as administrators.
Modernization
The arrival of black ships
It is not known how much longer the Tokugawa sogunato could have lasted in its isolated world, but the external forces accelerated its disappearance. A group of western ships - which the Japanese called kurofune (black ships), because they were covered with tar - had begun to appear in Japanese waters since the beginning of the s. XIX. However, any Westerner who stepped on Japanese territory, even if it was a shipwreck, was expelled or executed.
The United States, in particular, intended to expand its interests in the Pacific, and its numerous northwestern whaling ships needed to stock up regularly. In 1853, and again the following year, the American commodore Matthew Perry entered the bay of Edo with his gunboats and demanded that Japan be open to trade. The sogunato could not face Perry's fire and had to agree to his demands; Soon a US consul arrived, followed by those of other Western powers. Japan was forced to sign the "inequality treaties", by which it opened access to its ports and ceded control of its tariffs to Western nations.
The arrival of black ships
It is not known how much longer the Tokugawa sogunato could have lasted in its isolated world, but the external forces accelerated its disappearance. A group of western ships - which the Japanese called kurofune (black ships), because they were covered with tar - had begun to appear in Japanese waters since the beginning of the s. XIX. However, any Westerner who stepped on Japanese territory, even if it was a shipwreck, was expelled or executed.
The United States, in particular, intended to expand its interests in the Pacific, and its numerous northwestern whaling ships needed to stock up regularly. In 1853, and again the following year, the American commodore Matthew Perry entered the bay of Edo with his gunboats and demanded that Japan be open to trade. The sogunato could not face Perry's fire and had to agree to his demands; Soon a US consul arrived, followed by those of other Western powers. Japan was forced to sign the "inequality treaties", by which it opened access to its ports and ceded control of its tariffs to Western nations.
The Meiji Restoration
Despite the recent desperate efforts of the Tokugawa regime to reaffirm its power, the anti-sogunato sentiment was intense, especially in the surroundings of Satsuma (south of Kyūshū) and Chōshū (west of Honshū). A movement was raised to "venerate the emperor and expel the barbarians" (sonnō jōi); in other words, to restore the real power of the emperor (and that it was more than a titular authority) and cast the westerners.
But after unsuccessful skirmishes against Western powers, the reformists realized that it was not feasible to expel foreigners; but it was to restore the power of the emperor: after a series of military clashes between the armies of the sogunato and the rebels - who demonstrated the advantage of the latter - the last sogún, Yoshinobu (1837-1913), agreed to retire in 1867 and He spent the last years of his life in peace in Shizuoka.
In 1868, the new adolescent emperor Mutsuhito (1852-1912; later known as Meiji) was erected supreme leader of the country, and with it began the Meiji period (1868-1912; ‘rule worship’). The sogunato was abolished as an institution, and its headquarters, Edo, was remodeled as the imperial capital and received the name of Tokyo ("capital of the east"). But Tokugawa supporters did not disappear; the struggles continued, especially in the north, between 1868 and 1869, in the Boshin war.
Actually, the emperor had little power: a new government was formed, led by thirty-year-old samurai from Satsuma and Chōshū. Although they claimed that they did everything on behalf of the emperor and with their authorization, they were moved by personal ambition and a genuine interest in their country.
Despite the recent desperate efforts of the Tokugawa regime to reaffirm its power, the anti-sogunato sentiment was intense, especially in the surroundings of Satsuma (south of Kyūshū) and Chōshū (west of Honshū). A movement was raised to "venerate the emperor and expel the barbarians" (sonnō jōi); in other words, to restore the real power of the emperor (and that it was more than a titular authority) and cast the westerners.
But after unsuccessful skirmishes against Western powers, the reformists realized that it was not feasible to expel foreigners; but it was to restore the power of the emperor: after a series of military clashes between the armies of the sogunato and the rebels - who demonstrated the advantage of the latter - the last sogún, Yoshinobu (1837-1913), agreed to retire in 1867 and He spent the last years of his life in peace in Shizuoka.
In 1868, the new adolescent emperor Mutsuhito (1852-1912; later known as Meiji) was erected supreme leader of the country, and with it began the Meiji period (1868-1912; ‘rule worship’). The sogunato was abolished as an institution, and its headquarters, Edo, was remodeled as the imperial capital and received the name of Tokyo ("capital of the east"). But Tokugawa supporters did not disappear; the struggles continued, especially in the north, between 1868 and 1869, in the Boshin war.
Actually, the emperor had little power: a new government was formed, led by thirty-year-old samurai from Satsuma and Chōshū. Although they claimed that they did everything on behalf of the emperor and with their authorization, they were moved by personal ambition and a genuine interest in their country.
Westernization
Above all, Japan's new leaders - avid observers of what was happening throughout Asia - feared being colonized by the West. They rushed to modernize according to Western standards, to show that they could live up to the colonizers.
The Government undertook a major industrialization and militarization project; and an important exchange between Japan and the West began: Japanese scholars were sent to Europe to study everything from literature and engineering to the construction of nations and modern war tactics, and Western scholars were invited to teach at the nascent Japanese universities.
The new Japanese ruling class learned quickly: in 1872 the first railway line was inaugurated, linking Tokyo with the new Yokohama port, to the south, along Tokyo Bay. In 1889 the country already had a Constitution, modeled according to the government frameworks of England and Prussia, and banking systems, a new legal code and political parties were established. The daimios were "convinced" to cede their fiefdoms to the Government in exchange for obtaining positions of governors or others, which allowed the creation of prefectures.
Democracy was not a quick process, and favoritism persisted. The Government assumed the responsibility of founding the main industries and then selling them at a bargain price to friendly entrepreneurs of the ruling class; a key factor in the formation of huge industrial conglomerates, known as zaibatsu, many of which still exist today (such as Mitsubushi, Sumitomo and Mitsui).
In the early years, Japan's main industry was textiles, and silk was its great export; but in the Meiji period, manufacturing and heavy industry became so, and the country became a world shipbuilding power.
Above all, Japan's new leaders - avid observers of what was happening throughout Asia - feared being colonized by the West. They rushed to modernize according to Western standards, to show that they could live up to the colonizers.
The Government undertook a major industrialization and militarization project; and an important exchange between Japan and the West began: Japanese scholars were sent to Europe to study everything from literature and engineering to the construction of nations and modern war tactics, and Western scholars were invited to teach at the nascent Japanese universities.
The new Japanese ruling class learned quickly: in 1872 the first railway line was inaugurated, linking Tokyo with the new Yokohama port, to the south, along Tokyo Bay. In 1889 the country already had a Constitution, modeled according to the government frameworks of England and Prussia, and banking systems, a new legal code and political parties were established. The daimios were "convinced" to cede their fiefdoms to the Government in exchange for obtaining positions of governors or others, which allowed the creation of prefectures.
Democracy was not a quick process, and favoritism persisted. The Government assumed the responsibility of founding the main industries and then selling them at a bargain price to friendly entrepreneurs of the ruling class; a key factor in the formation of huge industrial conglomerates, known as zaibatsu, many of which still exist today (such as Mitsubushi, Sumitomo and Mitsui).
In the early years, Japan's main industry was textiles, and silk was its great export; but in the Meiji period, manufacturing and heavy industry became so, and the country became a world shipbuilding power.
New ideologies
The Meiji Restoration also championed long-range social changes: the class system was eliminated. After centuries having everything prescribed, citizens were now free to choose their trade and place of residence. The new intellectual elite, traveled and read, encouraged the Japanese to undertake to show the world that Japan was a powerful and successful nation. Improvements in agricultural technology liberated labor in the countryside, and many farmers moved to the city to swell the ranks of manufacturing sectors.
Buddhism, which had a close bond with the sogunato, suffered with the new government. Shintoism - and, above all, the rituals of worship to the emperor - were promoted instead as a system of "pure" beliefs (read native). However, elements of the new Confucianism were preserved because they favored order; and the new laws coined a patriarchal family system by which women were subordinate to their husbands. Catholicism ceased to be banned (though little mattered).
The Meiji Restoration also championed long-range social changes: the class system was eliminated. After centuries having everything prescribed, citizens were now free to choose their trade and place of residence. The new intellectual elite, traveled and read, encouraged the Japanese to undertake to show the world that Japan was a powerful and successful nation. Improvements in agricultural technology liberated labor in the countryside, and many farmers moved to the city to swell the ranks of manufacturing sectors.
Buddhism, which had a close bond with the sogunato, suffered with the new government. Shintoism - and, above all, the rituals of worship to the emperor - were promoted instead as a system of "pure" beliefs (read native). However, elements of the new Confucianism were preserved because they favored order; and the new laws coined a patriarchal family system by which women were subordinate to their husbands. Catholicism ceased to be banned (though little mattered).
The world stage
Imperialist Japan
A key element in the Japanese goal of becoming a world power was military power. Following the Prussian (army) and British (navy) models, Japan developed a magnificent army. With the same tactic that Perry had used against the Japanese, in 1876 Japan was able to impose on Korea the treaty that was most convenient for him and he became increasingly involved in his policy.
Using ‘Chinese interference’ in Korea as a pretext, in 1894 Japan ‘manufactured’ a war with China, a weak nation at the time despite its huge size, and won victory. As a result, he appropriated Taiwan and the Liaotung Peninsula. Russia pressured Japan to renounce the peninsula, and immediately occupied it, which resulted in the Russo-Japanese war of 1904-1905, with a Japanese victory. When Japan officially annexed Korea in 1901, there were hardly any international protests.
At the death of Mutsuhito in 1912, Japan was considered a world power. In addition to his military victories and territorial conquests, in 1902 he had signed the first Anglo-Japanese alliance, the first between a Western and a non-Western country. The unequal treaties had been amended.
Mutsuhito was succeeded by his son Yoshihito (known as Emperor Taishō), although in 1921 his mental deterioration made his son Hirohito (1901-1989) regent. It was not an easy time, but the brief Taishō period (1912-1926; "of great righteousness") is summed up as a time of optimism. The old loyalties of the feudal era were extinguished, and the political parties were born, giving rise to the term "Taishō democracy."
Japan participated in World War I on the side of the Allies, and was rewarded with a seat on the council of the newly created League of Nations. He also acquired German possessions in East Asia and the Pacific. The war had boosted the economy, generating a new stratum of wealth (foreign to the vast majority of the population).
Imperialist Japan
A key element in the Japanese goal of becoming a world power was military power. Following the Prussian (army) and British (navy) models, Japan developed a magnificent army. With the same tactic that Perry had used against the Japanese, in 1876 Japan was able to impose on Korea the treaty that was most convenient for him and he became increasingly involved in his policy.
Using ‘Chinese interference’ in Korea as a pretext, in 1894 Japan ‘manufactured’ a war with China, a weak nation at the time despite its huge size, and won victory. As a result, he appropriated Taiwan and the Liaotung Peninsula. Russia pressured Japan to renounce the peninsula, and immediately occupied it, which resulted in the Russo-Japanese war of 1904-1905, with a Japanese victory. When Japan officially annexed Korea in 1901, there were hardly any international protests.
At the death of Mutsuhito in 1912, Japan was considered a world power. In addition to his military victories and territorial conquests, in 1902 he had signed the first Anglo-Japanese alliance, the first between a Western and a non-Western country. The unequal treaties had been amended.
Mutsuhito was succeeded by his son Yoshihito (known as Emperor Taishō), although in 1921 his mental deterioration made his son Hirohito (1901-1989) regent. It was not an easy time, but the brief Taishō period (1912-1926; "of great righteousness") is summed up as a time of optimism. The old loyalties of the feudal era were extinguished, and the political parties were born, giving rise to the term "Taishō democracy."
Japan participated in World War I on the side of the Allies, and was rewarded with a seat on the council of the newly created League of Nations. He also acquired German possessions in East Asia and the Pacific. The war had boosted the economy, generating a new stratum of wealth (foreign to the vast majority of the population).
Militarization
During the 1920s, Japan began to feel that Western powers were not treating it fairly. The Washington Conference of 1921-1922 set naval proportions on three capital ships for Japan, five for the US and another five for the British, which offended the Japanese (despite being ahead of France's 1.75 ). Almost at the same time, the racial equality clause proposed by Japan to the League of Nations was rejected, and in 1924 the US introduced race-based immigration policies that directly targeted the Japanese.
The dissatisfaction intensified in the Shōwa period (1926-1989; "shining peace"), which began with the death of Yoshihito and the formal rise to the throne of Hirohito. The rural population denounced an elite that they considered perverted by Western decline. From the Great Depression that began at the end of the 1920s a new class of urban poor emerged that rejected what until then had considered progress. The leftist networks, inspired by the changes in Russia, began to claim workers' rights.
Meanwhile, the militarists suffered the humiliation of another round of capitulations, and concluded that Japan needed to ensure its own interests: they believed in the Co-operativity Sphere of Greater East Asia, rich in resources and under Japanese control. Prime Minister Hamaguchi Osachi, who favored economic austerity in the face of increased military spending, was shot in 1931 (died several months later). The military acted on their own.
During the 1920s, Japan began to feel that Western powers were not treating it fairly. The Washington Conference of 1921-1922 set naval proportions on three capital ships for Japan, five for the US and another five for the British, which offended the Japanese (despite being ahead of France's 1.75 ). Almost at the same time, the racial equality clause proposed by Japan to the League of Nations was rejected, and in 1924 the US introduced race-based immigration policies that directly targeted the Japanese.
The dissatisfaction intensified in the Shōwa period (1926-1989; "shining peace"), which began with the death of Yoshihito and the formal rise to the throne of Hirohito. The rural population denounced an elite that they considered perverted by Western decline. From the Great Depression that began at the end of the 1920s a new class of urban poor emerged that rejected what until then had considered progress. The leftist networks, inspired by the changes in Russia, began to claim workers' rights.
Meanwhile, the militarists suffered the humiliation of another round of capitulations, and concluded that Japan needed to ensure its own interests: they believed in the Co-operativity Sphere of Greater East Asia, rich in resources and under Japanese control. Prime Minister Hamaguchi Osachi, who favored economic austerity in the face of increased military spending, was shot in 1931 (died several months later). The military acted on their own.
The aggression against China
In the autumn of 1931, members of the Japanese Army stationed in Manchuria, where they watched the railway lines that China rented to Japan, detonated explosives on the tracks and blamed the Chinese dissidents. That ruse, which served as an excuse for the Japanese for armed reprisals, is known as the Manchuria Incident. The Japanese easily defeated the Chinese forces, and in a matter of months they assumed control of Manchuria (the current provinces of Heilongjiang, Jilin and Liaoning), placing a puppet government. The League of Nations refused to recognize the new government of Manchuria, and in 1933 Japan left that organization.
Skirmishes between the Chinese and Japanese army continued, culminating in a great war in 1937. After an arduous victory in Shanghai, the Japanese troops advanced south to capture Nanjing. Over several months, between 40,000 and 300,000 Chinese were killed in the Nanjing Massacre (or the Nanjing Rape). Today, the death toll and the percentage of rapes, torture and looting committed by Japanese soldiers is a cause for heated debate between historians (and government nationalists) on both sides. Japanese attempts to minimize this and other massacres in Asia remain a major obstacle in Japan's relations with most Asian nations.
In the autumn of 1931, members of the Japanese Army stationed in Manchuria, where they watched the railway lines that China rented to Japan, detonated explosives on the tracks and blamed the Chinese dissidents. That ruse, which served as an excuse for the Japanese for armed reprisals, is known as the Manchuria Incident. The Japanese easily defeated the Chinese forces, and in a matter of months they assumed control of Manchuria (the current provinces of Heilongjiang, Jilin and Liaoning), placing a puppet government. The League of Nations refused to recognize the new government of Manchuria, and in 1933 Japan left that organization.
Skirmishes between the Chinese and Japanese army continued, culminating in a great war in 1937. After an arduous victory in Shanghai, the Japanese troops advanced south to capture Nanjing. Over several months, between 40,000 and 300,000 Chinese were killed in the Nanjing Massacre (or the Nanjing Rape). Today, the death toll and the percentage of rapes, torture and looting committed by Japanese soldiers is a cause for heated debate between historians (and government nationalists) on both sides. Japanese attempts to minimize this and other massacres in Asia remain a major obstacle in Japan's relations with most Asian nations.
World War II
Encouraged by the first German victories of World War II, Japan signed a pact with Germany and Italy in 1940 (although the alliance barely reported cooperation). With France and the Netherlands distracted and weakened by the war in Europe, Japan entered its colonial territories - French Indochina and the Dutch West Indies - of Southeast Asia.
Tensions between Japan and the US intensified when the Americans, alarmed by Japanese aggression, demanded that Japan withdraw from China. When diplomacy failed, the US dealt a crucial blow banning the export of oil to Japan. Given this, the Japanese Army attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, damaging the bulk of the U.S. Pacific fleet and, apparently, taking Americans by surprise (although some historians believe Roosevelt and others allowed the attack to end with the isolationist sentiment and give entry to the US in the war against Germany; and others think that Japan never believed that it would defeat the US, but hoped to sit it at the negotiating table and win.)
Japan moved rapidly through the Pacific, but its fate began to change in the battle of Midway, in June 1942, where a large part of its fleet was destroyed. The Japanese had overreached, and for the next three years a counterattack was expected in the country. In mid-1945, Japan, ignoring the Postdam Declaration, which demanded its unconditional surrender, was preparing for a final attack by the Allies. On August 6, the first atomic bomb, which killed 90,000 civilians, was dropped on Hiroshima. Russia, whose eventual mediation had counted Japan, declared war on August 8. To top it off, a second atomic bomb was launched on August 9, this time over Nagasaki, which caused another 50,000 casualties. The emperor surrendered on August 15.
Encouraged by the first German victories of World War II, Japan signed a pact with Germany and Italy in 1940 (although the alliance barely reported cooperation). With France and the Netherlands distracted and weakened by the war in Europe, Japan entered its colonial territories - French Indochina and the Dutch West Indies - of Southeast Asia.
Tensions between Japan and the US intensified when the Americans, alarmed by Japanese aggression, demanded that Japan withdraw from China. When diplomacy failed, the US dealt a crucial blow banning the export of oil to Japan. Given this, the Japanese Army attacked Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, damaging the bulk of the U.S. Pacific fleet and, apparently, taking Americans by surprise (although some historians believe Roosevelt and others allowed the attack to end with the isolationist sentiment and give entry to the US in the war against Germany; and others think that Japan never believed that it would defeat the US, but hoped to sit it at the negotiating table and win.)
Japan moved rapidly through the Pacific, but its fate began to change in the battle of Midway, in June 1942, where a large part of its fleet was destroyed. The Japanese had overreached, and for the next three years a counterattack was expected in the country. In mid-1945, Japan, ignoring the Postdam Declaration, which demanded its unconditional surrender, was preparing for a final attack by the Allies. On August 6, the first atomic bomb, which killed 90,000 civilians, was dropped on Hiroshima. Russia, whose eventual mediation had counted Japan, declared war on August 8. To top it off, a second atomic bomb was launched on August 9, this time over Nagasaki, which caused another 50,000 casualties. The emperor surrendered on August 15.
The contemporary period
The terms of the Japanese surrender to the Allies allowed the country to keep the emperor as head of ceremonial state, but devoid of all authority - and of divine ancestry -, and Japan was forced to withdraw its territorial demands in Korea and China. In addition, the US occupied the country under the command of General McArthur, a situation that lasted until 1952. The defeat had a very bitter taste, but the population was starving, and the food of the Americans was better than nothing.
In the 1950s Japan undertook a bold growth trajectory that has been described as miraculous (although many historians, both Japanese and American, argue that Japan's role as an advanced US base in the Korean War reactivated Japan's economy) . It was not until the 1990s, with the outbreak of the financial bubble, that the country touched again with its feet on the ground.
The following decades have been characterized by economic stagnation, worsened by the global financial crisis of 2008. Three years later, Japan was devastated by the Great East Japan Earthquake and the tsunami that followed, which caused more than 15,000 victims deadly S. XXI is an introspective time for the country, which fights with the legacy of the ups and downs of previous centuries, while trying to find its place in a world that changes at full speed.
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